The 21 March 1960 Sharpeville Massacre

The 21 March 1960 Sharpeville Massacre On 21 March 1960 at least 180 black Africans were injured (there are claims of as many as 300) and 69 killed when South African police opened fire on approximately 300 demonstrators, who were protesting against the pass laws, at the township of Sharpeville, near Vereeniging in the Transvaal. In similar demonstrations at the police station in Vanderbijlpark, another person was shot. Later that day at Langa, a township outside Cape Town, police baton charged and fired tear gas at the gathered protesters, shooting three and injuring several others. The Sharpeville Massacre, as the event has become known, signaled the start of armed resistance in South Africa, and prompted worldwide condemnation of South Africas Apartheid policies. Build-up to the Massacre On 13 May 1902 the treaty which ended the Anglo-Boer War was signed at Vereeniging; it signified a new era of cooperation between English and Afrikaner living in Southern Africa. By 1910, the two Afrikaner states of Orange River Colony (Oranje Vrij Staat) and Transvaal (Zuid Afrikaansche Republick) were joined with Cape Colony and Natal as the Union of South Africa. The repression of black Africans became entrenched in the constitution of the new union (although perhaps not intentionally) and the foundations of Grand Apartheid were laid. After the Second World War the Herstigte (Reformed or Pure) National Party (HNP) came into power (by a slender majority, created through a coalition with the otherwise insignificant Afrikaner Party) in 1948. Its members had been disaffected from the previous government, the United Party, in 1933, and had smarted at the governments accord with Britain during the war. Within a year the Mixed Marriages Act was instituted – the first of many segregationist laws devised to separate privileged white South Africans from the black African masses. By 1958, with the election of Hendrik Verwoerd, (white) South Africa was completely entrenched in the philosophy of Apartheid. There was opposition to the governments policies. The African National Congress  (ANC) was working within the law against all forms of racial discrimination in South Africa. In 1956 had committed itself to a South Africa which belongs to all. A peaceful demonstration in June that same year, at which the ANC (and other anti-Apartheid groups) approved the Freedom Charter, led to the arrest of 156 anti-Apartheid leaders and the Treason Trial which lasted until 1961. By the late 1950s, some of ANCs members had become disillusioned with the peaceful response. Known as Africanists this select group was opposed to a multi-racial future for South Africa. The Africanists followed a philosophy that a racially assertive sense of nationalism was needed to mobilize the masses, and they advocated a strategy of mass action (boycotts, strikes, civil disobedience and non-cooperation). The Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) was formed in April 1959, with Robert Mangaliso Sobukwe as president. The PAC and ANC did not agree on policy, and it seemed unlikely in 1959 that they would co-operate in any manner. The ANC planned a campaign of demonstration against the pass laws to start at the beginning of April 1960. The PAC rushed ahead and announced a similar demonstration, to start ten days earlier, effectively hijacking the ANC campaign. The PAC called for African males in every city and village... to leave their passes at home, join demonstrations and, if arrested, [to] offer no bail, no defence, [and] no fine.1 On 16 March 1960, Sobukwe wrote to the commissioner of police, Major General Rademeyer, stating that the PAC would be holding a five-day, non-violent, disciplined, and sustained protest campaign against pass laws, starting on 21 March. At a press conference on 18 March, he further stated: I have appealed to the African people to make sure that this campaign is conducted in a spirit of absolute non-violence, and I am quite certain they will heed my call. If the other side so desires, we will provide them with an opportunity to demonstrate to the world how brutal they can be. The PAC leadership was hopeful of some kind of physical response. References: 1. Africa since 1935 Vol VIII of the UNESCO General History of Africa, editor Ali Mazrui, published by James Currey, 1999, p259-60.    Next page Part 2: The Massacre Page 1, 2, 3

Mount Wilson Observatory

Mount Wilson Observatory High in the San Gabriel mountains, north of the busy Los Angeles basin, the telescopes at the Mount Wilson Observatory have been watching the skies for more than a century. Through its venerable instruments, astronomers have made discoveries that have changed humanitys understanding of the universe. Fast Facts: Mount Wilson Observatory Mount Wilson Observatory has four telescopes, three solar towers, and four interferometer arrays. The largest telescope is the 100-inch Hooker Telescope.One of the most important discoveries made at Mount Wilson in its early years was by Edwin P. Hubble. He found that the Andromeda Nebula is actually a separate galaxy.The CHARA Array on Mount Wilson was used in 2013 to detect starspots on the star Zeta Andromedae, and in 2007, it made the first measurement of the angular diameter of a planet around another star. Today, Mount Wilson remains one of the premier observatories in the world, despite the incursions of light pollution that threaten its clear views of the sky. It is run by the Mount Wilson Institute, which took over the administration of the observatory after Carnegie Institution for Science planned to shut it down in 1984. The site has been kept open and running again since the mid-1990s. Mount Wilson and Observatory ridge aerial photo. Doc Searls, CC BY 2.0   History of Mount Wilson Observatory Mount Wilson Observatory was built on the 1,740-meter tall Mount Wilson (named for the early settler Benjamin Wilson). It was founded by George Ellery Hale, a solar astronomer devoted to studying and understanding sunspots, and was also one of the key people involved in building telescopes in the early 20th century. He brought the 60-inch Hale reflecting telescope to Mount Wilson, followed by the 100-inch Hooker telescope. He also built a 200-inch telescope at nearby Palomar Mountain, south of Los Angeles. It was Hales work that eventually inspired Griffith J. Griffith to give money for the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles. The observatory at Mount Wilson was originally built with funding by the Carnegie Institution of Washington. In more recent times, it has received funding from universities. It also solicits support from the public in the form of donations for the continued operation of the facilities.   The 100-inch Hooker telescope, once the largest in the world. It is still in use today. Ken Spencer, CC BY-SA 3.0   Challenges and Telescopes Building world-class telescopes atop the mountain posed a number of challenges for the observatorys founders.  Access to the mountain was limited by the rough roads and even rougher terrain. Still, a consortium of people from Harvard, University of Southern California, and Carnegie Institutions began to work on building the observatory. Two telescopes, a 40-inch Alvan Clark instrument, and a 13-inch refractor were ordered for the new site. Harvard astronomers began using the observatory in the late 1880s. Encroaching tourists and the owners of the land made things difficult, and for a time the observatory site shut down. The planned 40-inch telescope was diverted for use at the Yerkes Observatory in Illinois.   Eventually, Hale and others decided to return to Mount Wilson to build new telescopes there. Hale wanted to do stellar spectroscopy as part of new advances in astronomy. After much back-and-forth and negotiations, Hale signed a contract to lease 40 acres at the top of Mount Wilson to build an observatory. In particular, he wanted to create a solar observatory there. It took several years, but eventually, four great telescopes, including the world’s largest solar and stellar instruments, would get built on the mountain. Using those facilities, astronomers such as Edwin Hubble made significant discoveries about stars and galaxies.   The Original Mount Wilson Telescopes The Mount Wilson telescopes were behemoths to build and transport up the mountain. Since few vehicles could make the drive, Hale had to rely on horse-drawn carriages to bring up the mirrors and equipment needed. The result of all the hard work was the building of the Snow Solar Telescope, which was the first one to be installed on the mountain. Joining it was the 60-foot solar tower, and then a 150-foot solar tower. For non-solar viewing, the observatory built the 60-inch Hale Telescope, and then finally the 100-inch Hooker Telescope. The Hooker held the record for many years as the worlds largest telescope until the 200-inch was built at Palomar.   The Hale telescope being transported up to the summit of Mount Wilson. Public domain.  Ã‚   Current Instruments Mount Wilson Observatory eventually gained several solar telescopes over the years. It has also added instruments such as the Infrared Spatial Interferometer. This array gives astronomers another way to study infrared radiation from celestial objects. In addition, there are two stellar interferometers, a 61-cm telescope, and the Caltech Infrared Telescope are also in use on the mountain. In 2004, Georgia State University built an optical interferometer called the CHARA Array (named for the Center for Angular Resolution Astronomy). Its one of the most powerful instruments of its kind.   The top of the solar tower on Mount Wilson.   Dave Foc, CC BY-SA 3.0.   Each piece of the Mount Wilson Observatory collection is equipped with state-of-the-art CCD cameras, detector arrays, and spectrometers and spectrographs. All these instruments help astronomers record the observations, create images, and dissect the light that streams from distant objects in the cosmos.  In addition, to help correct for atmospheric conditions, the 60-inch telescope has been outfitted with adaptive optics that allow it to get sharper images. Notable Observations at Mount Wilson Not long after the largest telescopes were built, astronomers began flocking to use them. In particular, astronomer Edwin P. Hubble used the Hooker to peer out at distant objects that were (at the time) called spiral nebulae.  It was at Mount Wilson that he made his famous observations of Cepheid variable stars in the Andromeda nebula, and concluded that this object was really a distant and distinct galaxy. That discovery in the Andromeda Galaxy shook the foundations of astronomy. Then, a few years later, Hubble and his assistant, Milton Humason, made further observations that proved the universe is expanding. These observations formed the basis of the modern study of cosmology: the origin and evolution of the universe. Its views of the expanding universe have informed cosmologys constant search for an understanding of such events as the Big Bang.   Edwin P. Hubble, the astronomer who used the Mount Wilson 100-inch telescope to observe distant galaxies. His work led to the discovery of the expanding universe. Public domain   Mount Wilson Observatory has also been used to look for evidence of such things as dark matter, by astronomer Fritz Zwicky, and further work on the different types of stellar populations by Walter Baade. The question of dark matter has been studied by other astronomers as well, including the late Vera Rubin. Some of astronomys most prominent names have used this facility over the years, including Margaret Harwood, Alan Sandage, and many others. Its still heavily used today and allows remote access to observers from around the world.   Dr. Vera Cooper Rubin in 1970, working on measuring galaxy rotation rates. Vera Rubin Mount Wilson in the Public Eye The administration of Mount Wilson Observatory is also dedicated to public outreach and education. To that end, the 60-inch telescope is used for educational observing. The grounds of the observatory are open to visitors, and there are weekend observing sessions and tours available as the weather permits. Hollywood has used Mount Wilson for a filming location, and the world has watched several times via Webcam as the observatory was threatened by wildfires. Sources â€Å"CHARA - Home.† Center for High Angular Resolution Astronomy, www.chara.gsu.edu/.Collins, Marvin. â€Å"Benjamins Mountain.† Broadcast History, www.oldradio.com/archives/stations/LA/mtwilson1.htm.â€Å"Mount Wilson Observatory.† Atlas Obscura, Atlas Obscura, 15 Jan. 2014, www.atlasobscura.com/places/mount-wilson-observatory.â€Å"Mount Wilson Observatory.† Mount Wilson Observatory, www.mtwilson.edu/.